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<!DOCTYPE html>
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<html>
<head>
<title>Grammar</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" href="./grammar.css">
</head>
<body>
<h2>Introduction</h2>
<h4>Aims</h4>
<p><em>Grammar for English Language Teachers</em> has two primary aims:</p>
<ul>
<li>to help you develop your overall knowledge and understanding of English grammar</li>
<li>to provide a quick source of reference in planning lessons or clarifying learners' problems.</li>
</ul>
<p>The book provides a broader perspective of grammar than that presented to students in course materials. It encourages you to appreciate the complexity (and, where relevant, the ambiguity) of grammatical description, and to recognise the limitations of the 'rules of thumb' presented to learners in course materials.</p>
<p>It also seeks to nourish a love for and fascination with English grammar.</p>
<h4>Who this book is for</h4>
<p>This book is intended for:</p>
<ul>
<li>prospective and practising teachers studying language as part of a degree in English or on courses such as those leading to teaching certificates and diplomas</li>
<li>teachers who want to continue learning and exploring the grammar of English on their own</li>
<li>teachers who do and teachers who do not speak English as a first language.</li>
</ul>
<h4>Content and organisation</h4>
<p>People sometimes associate the term 'grammar' with the different parts of speech or 'word classes' that words can belong to (adjective, noun, preposition etc.). Materials produced for studying English over the last three decades have, however, reflected and promoted an obsession with another aspect of grammar- the verb phrase (tenses, conditionals, etc.).</p>
<p>The chapters in Part A look at grammar from the starting point of word class, and those in Part B deal with the verb phrase. Parts C and D, however, look at more neglected aspects of grammar, and you may want to take more time to work through these parts of the book progressively and systematically. Each of these four parts begins with a general introduction to the topic.</p>
<p>Each chapter in Parts A-D begins with a review of 'Key considerations' relating to its topic. It explores the topic in depth in the subsequent sections, including the 'Typical difficulties for learners' that this area of grammar causes.</p>
<p>Each chapter ends with exercises to help you consolidate what you have learned. These 'Consolidation exercises' use real texts, transcriptions of conversation and examples of learners' writing; possible answers to each of the exercises are also suggested. PartE ('Researching language') encourages you to research how language is used in different contexts, and to evaluate classroom and reference materials. More detailed chapter-by-chapter 'Extension exercises' (and comments on these) can be found on the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/catalog/teacher-training-development-and-research/grammar-english-language-teachers-2nd-edition/grammar-english-language-teachers-2nd-edition-paperback/resources" target="_blank">Cambridge University Press Website</a> .</p>
<h4>The second edition</h4>
<p>The second edition of <em>Grammar for English Language Teachers</em> incorporates a number of innovations, additions and changes.</p>
<p>Access to The Cambridge International Corpus has enabled the author to modify many of the explanations given and to provide new examples. The Cambridge Learner Corpus, similarly, has led to modifications and additions to the '"Typical difficulties for learners" sections of each chapter, and has again furnished additional examples.</p>
<p>Thanks to the invaluable feedback from users of the first edition, substantial changes have been made to the organisation of material in the book: the index has been extended and definitions of all key terms have been incorporated into the text. Cross-referencing within the text has been substantially expanded. In recognition of recent changes in emphasis in linguistics and teaching, Chapter 9 is entirely new. New sections have also been added within several chapters.</p>
<h4>Language varieties and language change</h4>
<p>The pronunciation and vocabulary of English vary both from region to region of the English-speaking world, and between communities within the same region. To some extent the grammar also varies.</p>
<p>In this book, the main model used is that of educated speakers in the southeast of England. However, this choice is a pragmatic one and is not based on an assumption that this variety of English is superior to others. Without wanting to burden or confuse the book's users, reference is made to other varieties of English (social or geographical) where this seems to be useful.</p>
<p>Like all languages, English is in a constant state of evolution. It is easy enough to look back over the past and to identify which changes were lasting and significant, and which were ephemeral. However, it is much harder both to identify changes taking place at the present, and to identify how lasting and significant they may be.</p>
<p>As far as possible we have tried to reflect contemporary usage, but a health warning is perhaps necessary. Many people dislike language change and regard innovations in a negative light. In teaching for written examinations, it is generally advisable to avoid recommending learners to adopt recent changes. Thus we will probably teach that <em>criteria</em> is a plural form (singular: <em>criterion</em>) (see p 13) even though learners may come across <em>criteria</em> used as a singular noun. Where such a conservative approach may be the safer option, this is flagged up in the text.</p>
<h4>Asterisks</h4>
<p>
Throughout the book a single asterisk at the beginning of a word, phrase or sentence is used to show that it is an example of incorrect use (e.g.
<em>
</em>
a rubbish's pile,
<em>
I don't know how you to respond
</em>
). An asterisk in brackets is used to show that something is unnatural, unidiomatic or of dubious correctness.
</p>
<p>
<em>() Have you lunched yet?</em>
</p>
<h1>
PART A Words
</h1>
<h3>
Introduction to Part A
<em>
(page 6)
</em>
</h3>
<p>
Words and grammar are often thought of as being separate entities. In fact, in learning any word we are also learning something about its grammar.
</p>
<p>
Words belong to different grammatical classes (e.g. noun, verb, preposition), and the class of a word determines:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
what other kinds of words we can combine with it.
</li>
</ul>
<span class="left">Example:</span>
<span class="right"><em>a beautiful day</em> NOT *<em>a beautifully day</em></span>
<br>
<span class="left">Explanation:</span>
<span class="right">We use adjectives not adverbs to qualify nouns.</span>
<ul>
<li>
the order in which we combine words.
</li>
</ul>
<pre><code> Example: *a beautiful day* NOT * *a day beautiful*
</code></pre>
<pre><code> Explanation: We normally put adjectives before the nouns they qualify.
</code></pre>
<p>
Grammar also determines, for example:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
which form of a word we choose.
</li>
</ul>
<pre><code> Example: *two days* NOT * *two day*
</code></pre>
<pre><code> Explanation: After numbers greater than one we use a plural form of the noun.
</code></pre>
<pre><code> Example: *more beautiful* NOT * *beautifuller*
</code></pre>
<pre><code> Explanation: We use more to make the comparative form of long adjectives and add *er* to make the comparative form of short adjectives.
</code></pre>
<p>
Classes | Examples | Chapter
</p>
<p>
------------ | ------------ | ---------
</p>
<p>
Nouns |
<em>
book(s), child(ren), information, life
</em>
| 1
</p>
<p>
Articles |
<em>
a, an, the
</em>
| 2
</p>
<p>
Quantifiers |
<em>
any, every, a few, some
</em>
| 3
</p>
<p>
Adjectives |
<em>
easy, old, open-ended, possible
</em>
| 4
</p>
<p>
Adverbs |
<em>
easily, sometimes, very
</em>
| 5
</p>
<p>
Comparative forms |
<em>
more beautiful, easier, fewer
</em>
| 6
</p>
<p>
Superlative forms |
<em>
most beautiful, easiest, fewest
</em>
| 6
</p>
<p>
Prepositions |
<em>
at, in, on top of, since
</em>
| 7
</p>
<p>
Verbs |
<em>
speak, go, can, will, drinking, been
</em>
| 8
</p>
<p>
We look at pronouns in Part C (pp 304, 371-2) not Part A. This is because learners' difficulties are closely related not only to decisions about number and gender but also to:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
judgements about how much information needs to be stated explicitly, and how much can be left out.
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
issues of grammatical function (e.g. subject or object).
</li>
</ul>
<h4>
Recognising word classes
</h4>
<p>
In some languages the word itself tells us a lot about what class it belongs to (for example, the spelling and pronunciation of the end of a word may show that it is a noun). In English there are very few clues in the word itself, and we usually have to look at the context. The following gives examples of different parts of speech:
</p>
<p>
![[Screenshot 2023-01-04 at 17.15.43.png]]
</p>
<h4>
Words that belong to more than one word class
</h4>
<p>
A lot of words can function as a member of one word class in some contexts and as a member of another word class in other contexts.
</p>
<p>
Examples | Word classes
</p>
<p>
-----------------|------------
</p>
<p>
<em>
abstract, adult, antique, green
</em>
| nouns, adjectives
</p>
<p>
<em>
wonder, rupture, sequence, drive, play, function
</em>
| nouns, verbs
</p>
<p>
<em>
fast, hard
</em>
| adjectives, adverbs
</p>
<p>
<em>
around, down, up
</em>
| adverbs, prepositions
</p>
<p>
<em>
come, given, considering
</em>
| prepositions, verbs
</p>
<p>
<em>
boring, open, locked
</em>
| adjectives, verbs
</p>
<p>
All quantifiers apart from
<em>
no
</em>
can also function as pronouns.
</p>
<p>
Quantifier | Pronoun
</p>
<p>
----|----
</p>
<p>
I saw
<em>
several
</em>
kangaroos | He asked for a volunteer and got
<em>
several
</em>
</p>
<p>
I don't know
<em>
many
</em>
girls | Teachers are poorly paid ...
<em>
many
</em>
leave the profession.
</p>
<h4>
Single words and multiword items
</h4>
<p>
The simplest way to define a word is by looking at the written language. If there is a space before and after a group of letters, this group of letters constitutes a word.
</p>
<p>
If we look at meaning rather than at form, we see that some combinations of two or more words are equivalent to single words. These are multiword items.
</p>
<p>
<em>
fed up
</em>
(adjective =
<em>
unhappy
</em>
)
</p>
<p>
<em>
give up
</em>
(verb =
<em>
stop
</em>
)
</p>
<p>
<em>
with regard to
</em>
(preposition =
<em>
about
</em>
)
</p>
<h4>
Grammar in course materials and in academic grammars
</h4>
<p>
Theoretical or academic grammars use different terms, classes and distinctions from those found in most course materials. While most academic grammars consider articles and quantifiers within the wider class of determiners, and adverbs within the wider context of adverbials, in this book we follow the pragmatic approach of course materials. Thus articles and quantifiers are dealt with separately, in Chapters 2 and 3. We look at single-word adverbs in Chapter 5 but at longer phrases (adverbials) in Chapter 20.
</p>
<h3>
1 - Nouns
<em>
(page 9)
</em>
</h3>
<p>
<em>
cat, cats, elite, capacity, dustbin, steak, people, Wednesday
</em>
</p>
<h4>
Key considerations
</h4>
<p>
Most learners are more concerned with the meaning of nouns than with their grammar. However, in learning to use a noun, they need to pay attention to a variety of grammatical factors. In particular they need to know whether a noun is countable or uncountable, and if countable, what its plural form is. More generally, learners also need to be able to:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
use nouns to modify other nouns.
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
choose and construct appropriate possessive forms.
</li>
</ul>
<h4>
What are nouns?
</h4>
<h5>
What do they do?
</h5>
<p>
The popular definition of a noun is that it 'describes a person, place or thing'. In fact we use nouns to express a range of additional meanings such as concepts, qualities, organisations, communities, sensations and events. Nouns convey a substantial proportion of the information in most texts.
</p>
<p>
In the previous paragraph, the following words are nouns:
</p>
<p>
<em>
definition, noun, person, place, thing, fact, nouns, range, meanings, concepts, qualities, organisations, communities, sensations, events, Nouns, proportion, information, texts.
</em>
</p>
<h5>
What do they look like?
</h5>
<h6>
Endings
</h6>
<p>
A small proportion of nouns have identifiable 'noun endings'. These include:
</p>
<p>
<em>
tradition, ability, excellence, significance, factor, rigour. Many plural nouns end ins, e.g. cats.
</em>
</p>
<h6>
Proper nouns and capital letters
</h6>
<p>
Words which begin with capital letters and are not at the beginning of sentences are often the names of people, places (towns, countries, etc.) or institutions. These are also called 'proper' nouns.
</p>
<p>
<em>
Lauren and Jack, Africa, International House
</em>
</p>
<p>
We also use a capital letter in days of the week, months of the year and the names of nationalities, ethnic groups and languages.
</p>
<p>
<em>
Tuesday, August, Swahili
</em>
</p>
<h5>
Where do nouns come in sentences?
</h5>
<p>
Nouns can:
</p>
<ul>
<li>
act as the subject of a verb:
<em>
<strong>
Cats
</strong>
kill mice
</em>
.
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
act as the object of a verb:
<em>
Cats kill
<strong>
mice
</strong>
</em>
.
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
<li>
act as the complement of a verb:
<em>
They are
<strong>
men
</strong>
</em>
.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
They often end a phrase which begins with an article such as
<em>
a(n)
</em>
, or a quantifier such as
<em>
either
</em>
,
<em>
any
</em>
, or
<em>
many
</em>
. They also often follow adjectives.
</p>
<p>
<em>
a
<strong>
drunk
</strong>
, either
<strong>
way
</strong>
, a much older
<strong>
elite
</strong>
, large
<strong>
mice
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<h4>
Countable and uncountable nouns
</h4>
<h5>
What are countable and uncountable nouns?
</h5>
<p>
Countable or 'unit' nouns have a singular and a plural form, e.g.
<em>
book
</em>
=&gt;
<em>
books
</em>
. Uncountable or 'mass' nouns have only one form, e.g.
<em>
furniture
</em>
NOT
<em>
</em>
furnitures*.
</p>
<p>
Singular | Plural | Uncountable
</p>
<p>
---- | ---- | ----
</p>
<p>
<em>
another
<strong>
biscuit
</strong>
</em>
|
<em>
three
<strong>
apples
</strong>
</em>
|
<em>
not much
<strong>
success
</strong>
</em>
</p>
<p>
The distinction between countable and uncountable is based on whether or not we can count (
<em>
1, 2, 3, 4
</em>
...) what the nouns describe. Nouns which describe separate and separable objects (e.g.
<em>
books), centre(s), computer(s)
</em>
) are usually countable, while those which describe liquids, materials, substances and abstract qualities (e.g.
<em>
milk, marble, putty, success
</em>
) are characteristically uncountable.
</p>
<p>
Although the distinction between countable and uncountable is based on the reality of what the nouns describe, the distinction is a grammatical one rather than a real one. Some learners of English are surprised to discover that, for example, the following are uncountable:
</p>
<p>
<em>
accommodation, bread, hair, information, money, news, rubbish, spaghetti, travel, weather
</em>
</p>
<h3>
#
</h3>
<h3>
2 - Articles
<em>
(page 25)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
3 - Quantifiers
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
4 - Adjectives
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
5 - Adverbs
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
6 - Comparatives and superlatives
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
7 - Prepositions
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
8 - Verbs (introduction)
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h3>
9 - Combining words
<em>
(page XX)
</em>
</h3>
<h2>
PART B More about verbs and related forms
</h2>
<h3>
Introduction to Part B
</h3>
<h3>
Multiword verbs and verbal expressions
</h3>
<h3>
Modal verbs
</h3>
<h3>
Infinitive and
<em>
-ing
</em>
forms of verbs
</h3>
<h3>
The present
</h3>
<h3>
The future
</h3>
<ol>
<li>
15  The past 218
</li>
</ol>
<ol>
<li>
16  The present perfect 235
</li>
</ol>
<ol>
<li>
17  used to and would 250
</li>
</ol>
<ol>
<li>
18  Reported and direct speech 257
</li>
</ol>
<ol>
<li>
19  Conditional sentences
</li>
</ol>
</body>
</html>

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## Introduction
#### Aims
*Grammar for English Language Teachers* has two primary aims:
- to help you develop your overall knowledge and understanding of English grammar
- to provide a quick source of reference in planning lessons or clarifying learners' problems.
The book provides a broader perspective of grammar than that presented to students in course materials. It encourages you to appreciate the complexity (and, where relevant, the ambiguity) of grammatical description, and to recognise the limitations of the 'rules of thumb' presented to learners in course materials.
It also seeks to nourish a love for and fascination with English grammar.
#### Who this book is for
This book is intended for:
- prospective and practising teachers studying language as part of a degree in English or on courses such as those leading to teaching certificates and diplomas
- teachers who want to continue learning and exploring the grammar of English on their own
- teachers who do and teachers who do not speak English as a first language.
#### Content and organisation
People sometimes associate the term 'grammar' with the different parts of speech or 'word classes' that words can belong to (adjective, noun, preposition etc.). Materials produced for studying English over the last three decades have, however, reflected and promoted an obsession with another aspect of grammar- the verb phrase (tenses, conditionals, etc.).
The chapters in Part A look at grammar from the starting point of word class, and those in Part B deal with the verb phrase. Parts C and D, however, look at more neglected aspects of grammar, and you may want to take more time to work through these parts of the book progressively and systematically. Each of these four parts begins with a general introduction to the topic.
Each chapter in Parts A-D begins with a review of 'Key considerations' relating to its topic. It explores the topic in depth in the subsequent sections, including the 'Typical difficulties for learners' that this area of grammar causes.
Each chapter ends with exercises to help you consolidate what you have learned. These 'Consolidation exercises' use real texts, transcriptions of conversation and examples of learners' writing; possible answers to each of the exercises are also suggested. PartE ('Researching language') encourages you to research how language is used in different contexts, and to evaluate classroom and reference materials. More detailed chapter-by-chapter 'Extension exercises' (and comments on these) can be found on the [Cambridge University Press Website](https://www.cambridge.org/gb/cambridgeenglish/catalog/teacher-training-development-and-research/grammar-english-language-teachers-2nd-edition/grammar-english-language-teachers-2nd-edition-paperback/resources).
#### The second edition
The second edition of *Grammar for English Language Teachers* incorporates a number of innovations, additions and changes.
Access to The Cambridge International Corpus has enabled the author to modify many of the explanations given and to provide new examples. The Cambridge Learner Corpus, similarly, has led to modifications and additions to the '"Typical difficulties for learners" sections of each chapter, and has again furnished additional examples.
Thanks to the invaluable feedback from users of the first edition, substantial changes have been made to the organisation of material in the book: the index has been extended and definitions of all key terms have been incorporated into the text. Cross-referencing within the text has been substantially expanded. In recognition of recent changes in emphasis in linguistics and teaching, Chapter 9 is entirely new. New sections have also been added within several chapters.
#### Language varieties and language change
The pronunciation and vocabulary of English vary both from region to region of the English-speaking world, and between communities within the same region. To some extent the grammar also varies.
In this book, the main model used is that of educated speakers in the southeast of England. However, this choice is a pragmatic one and is not based on an assumption that this variety of English is superior to others. Without wanting to burden or confuse the book's users, reference is made to other varieties of English (social or geographical) where this seems to be useful.
Like all languages, English is in a constant state of evolution. It is easy enough to look back over the past and to identify which changes were lasting and significant, and which were ephemeral. However, it is much harder both to identify changes taking place at the present, and to identify how lasting and significant they may be.
As far as possible we have tried to reflect contemporary usage, but a health warning is perhaps necessary. Many people dislike language change and regard innovations in a negative light. In teaching for written examinations, it is generally advisable to avoid recommending learners to adopt recent changes. Thus we will probably teach that *criteria* is a plural form (singular: *criterion*) (see p 13) even though learners may come across *criteria* used as a singular noun. Where such a conservative approach may be the safer option, this is flagged up in the text.
#### Asterisks
Throughout the book a single asterisk at the beginning of a word, phrase or sentence is used to show that it is an example of incorrect use (e.g. * *a rubbish's pile, * I don't know how you to respond*). An asterisk in brackets is used to show that something is unnatural, unidiomatic or of dubious correctness.
*( * ) Have you lunched yet?*
# PART A Words
### Introduction to Part A _(page 6)_
Words and grammar are often thought of as being separate entities. In fact, in learning any word we are also learning something about its grammar.
Words belong to different grammatical classes (e.g. noun, verb, preposition), and the class of a word determines:
- what other kinds of words we can combine with it.
Example: *a beautiful day* NOT * *a beautifully day*
Explanation: We use adjectives not adverbs to qualify nouns.
- the order in which we combine words.
Example: *a beautiful day* NOT * *a day beautiful*
Explanation: We normally put adjectives before the nouns they qualify.
Grammar also determines, for example:
- which form of a word we choose.
Example: *two days* NOT * *two day*
Explanation: After numbers greater than one we use a plural form of the noun.
Example: *more beautiful* NOT * *beautifuller*
Explanation: We use more to make the comparative form of long adjectives and add *er* to make the comparative form of short adjectives.
Classes | Examples | Chapter
------------ | ------------ | ---------
Nouns | *book(s), child(ren), information, life* | 1
Articles | *a, an, the* | 2
Quantifiers | *any, every, a few, some* | 3
Adjectives | *easy, old, open-ended, possible* | 4
Adverbs | *easily, sometimes, very* | 5
Comparative forms | *more beautiful, easier, fewer* | 6
Superlative forms | *most beautiful, easiest, fewest* | 6
Prepositions | *at, in, on top of, since* | 7
Verbs | *speak, go, can, will, drinking, been* | 8
We look at pronouns in Part C (pp 304, 371-2) not Part A. This is because learners' difficulties are closely related not only to decisions about number and gender but also to:
- judgements about how much information needs to be stated explicitly, and how much can be left out.
- issues of grammatical function (e.g. subject or object).
#### Recognising word classes
In some languages the word itself tells us a lot about what class it belongs to (for example, the spelling and pronunciation of the end of a word may show that it is a noun). In English there are very few clues in the word itself, and we usually have to look at the context. The following gives examples of different parts of speech:
![[Screenshot 2023-01-04 at 17.15.43.png]]
#### Words that belong to more than one word class
A lot of words can function as a member of one word class in some contexts and as a member of another word class in other contexts.
Examples | Word classes
-----------------|------------
*abstract, adult, antique, green* | nouns, adjectives
*wonder, rupture, sequence, drive, play, function* | nouns, verbs
*fast, hard* | adjectives, adverbs
*around, down, up* | adverbs, prepositions
*come, given, considering* | prepositions, verbs
*boring, open, locked* | adjectives, verbs
All quantifiers apart from *no* can also function as pronouns.
Quantifier | Pronoun
----|----
I saw *several* kangaroos | He asked for a volunteer and got *several*
I don't know *many* girls | Teachers are poorly paid ... *many* leave the profession.
#### Single words and multiword items
The simplest way to define a word is by looking at the written language. If there is a space before and after a group of letters, this group of letters constitutes a word.
If we look at meaning rather than at form, we see that some combinations of two or more words are equivalent to single words. These are multiword items.
*fed up* (adjective = *unhappy*)
*give up* (verb = *stop*)
*with regard to* (preposition = *about*)
#### Grammar in course materials and in academic grammars
Theoretical or academic grammars use different terms, classes and distinctions from those found in most course materials. While most academic grammars consider articles and quantifiers within the wider class of determiners, and adverbs within the wider context of adverbials, in this book we follow the pragmatic approach of course materials. Thus articles and quantifiers are dealt with separately, in Chapters 2 and 3. We look at single-word adverbs in Chapter 5 but at longer phrases (adverbials) in Chapter 20.
### 1 - Nouns _(page 9)_
*cat, cats, elite, capacity, dustbin, steak, people, Wednesday*
#### Key considerations
Most learners are more concerned with the meaning of nouns than with their grammar. However, in learning to use a noun, they need to pay attention to a variety of grammatical factors. In particular they need to know whether a noun is countable or uncountable, and if countable, what its plural form is. More generally, learners also need to be able to:
- use nouns to modify other nouns.
- choose and construct appropriate possessive forms.
#### What are nouns?
##### What do they do?
The popular definition of a noun is that it 'describes a person, place or thing'. In fact we use nouns to express a range of additional meanings such as concepts, qualities, organisations, communities, sensations and events. Nouns convey a substantial proportion of the information in most texts.
In the previous paragraph, the following words are nouns:
*definition, noun, person, place, thing, fact, nouns, range, meanings, concepts, qualities, organisations, communities, sensations, events, Nouns, proportion, information, texts.*
##### What do they look like?
###### Endings
A small proportion of nouns have identifiable 'noun endings'. These include:
*tradition, ability, excellence, significance, factor, rigour. Many plural nouns end ins, e.g. cats.*
###### Proper nouns and capital letters
Words which begin with capital letters and are not at the beginning of sentences are often the names of people, places (towns, countries, etc.) or institutions. These are also called 'proper' nouns.
*Lauren and Jack, Africa, International House*
We also use a capital letter in days of the week, months of the year and the names of nationalities, ethnic groups and languages.
*Tuesday, August, Swahili*
##### Where do nouns come in sentences?
Nouns can:
- act as the subject of a verb: *__Cats__ kill mice*.
- act as the object of a verb: *Cats kill __mice__*.
- act as the complement of a verb: *They are __men__*.
They often end a phrase which begins with an article such as *a(n)*, or a quantifier such as *either*, *any*, or *many*. They also often follow adjectives.
*a __drunk__, either __way__, a much older __elite__, large __mice__*
#### Countable and uncountable nouns
##### What are countable and uncountable nouns?
Countable or 'unit' nouns have a singular and a plural form, e.g. *book* => *books*. Uncountable or 'mass' nouns have only one form, e.g. *furniture* NOT * *furnitures*.
Singular | Plural | Uncountable
---- | ---- | ----
*another __biscuit__* | *three __apples__* | *not much __success__*
The distinction between countable and uncountable is based on whether or not we can count (*1, 2, 3, 4* ...) what the nouns describe. Nouns which describe separate and separable objects (e.g. *books), centre(s), computer(s)*) are usually countable, while those which describe liquids, materials, substances and abstract qualities (e.g. *milk, marble, putty, success*) are characteristically uncountable.
Although the distinction between countable and uncountable is based on the reality of what the nouns describe, the distinction is a grammatical one rather than a real one. Some learners of English are surprised to discover that, for example, the following are uncountable:
*accommodation, bread, hair, information, money, news, rubbish, spaghetti, travel, weather*
####
### 2 - Articles _(page 25)_
### 3 - Quantifiers _(page XX)_
### 4 - Adjectives _(page XX)_
### 5 - Adverbs _(page XX)_
### 6 - Comparatives and superlatives _(page XX)_
### 7 - Prepositions _(page XX)_
### 8 - Verbs (introduction) _(page XX)_
### 9 - Combining words _(page XX)_
## PART B More about verbs and related forms
### Introduction to Part B
### Multiword verbs and verbal expressions
### Modal verbs
### Infinitive and *-ing* forms of verbs
### The present
### The future
15. 15  The past 218
16. 16  The present perfect 235
17. 17  used to and would 250
18. 18  Reported and direct speech 257
19. 19  Conditional sentences